Metaphysics is a traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world that encompasses it, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms:
- Ultimately, what is there?
- What is it like?
A person who studies metaphysics is called a metaphysicist or a metaphysician. The metaphysician attempts to clarify the fundamental notions by which people understand the world, e.g., existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, and possibility. A central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to each other. Another central branch of metaphysics is cosmology, the study of the origin, fundamental structure, nature, and dynamics of the universe. Some include epistemology as another central focus of metaphysics, but others question this.
Prior to the modern history of science, scientific questions were addressed as a part of metaphysics known as natural philosophy. Originally, the term “science” (Latin scientia) simply meant “knowledge”. The scientific method, however, transformed natural philosophy into an empirical activity deriving from experiment unlike the rest of philosophy. By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to be called “science” to distinguish it from philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature of existence. Some philosophers of science, such as the neo-positivists, say that natural science rejects the study of metaphysics, while other philosophers of science strongly disagree.
Luc Paquin
Conclusions
Our health-care systems are undergoing change and, as a result, so are our professions. How we allow this change to affect our clinical practice, our research directions, and our response to consumer advocacy is up to us. We need to educate policy-makers that being fiscally responsible means having a consumer-driven model of intervention focusing on interventions that make real-life differences and minimize the consequences of disease and injury.
While it is clear that the implicit motivation underlying all clinical and research efforts in aphasia is related to increased participation in life, the path to achieving that goal is often indirect. Because LPAA makes life goals primary and explicit, it holds promise as an approach in which such goals are attainable. We invite other speech-language pathologists to join us in discussing and developing life participation approaches to aphasia.
Norma
Criticisms
Williams’ Argument In Detail
In addition to the preceding two arguments against the cogito, other arguments have been advanced by Bernard Williams. He claims, for example, that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say “I am thinking,” is something conceivable from a third-person perspective; namely objective “thought-events” in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter.
Williams provides a meticulous and exhaustive examination of this objection. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of “there is thinking” without relativizing it to something. However, this something cannot be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness.
The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind.
Søren Kierkegaard’s Critique
The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard provided a critical response to the cogito. Kierkegaard argues that the cogito already presupposes the existence of “I”, and therefore concluding with existence is logically trivial. Kierkegaard’s argument can be made clearer if one extracts the premise “I think” into two further premises:
- “x” thinks
- I am that “x”
- Therefore I think
- Therefore I am
Where “x” is used as a placeholder in order to disambiguate the “I” from the thinking thing.
Here, the cogito has already assumed the “I”‘s existence as that which thinks. For Kierkegaard, Descartes is merely “developing the content of a concept”, namely that the “I”, which already exists, thinks.
Kierkegaard argues that the value of the cogito is not its logical argument, but its psychological appeal: a thought must have something that exists to think the thought. It is psychologically difficult to think “I do not exist”. But as Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or presupposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking.
John Macmurray’s Form of the Personal
The Scottish philosopher John Macmurray rejects the cogito outright in order to place action at the center of a philosophical system he entitles the Form of the Personal. “We must reject this, both as standpoint and as method. If this be philosophy, then philosophy is a bubble floating in an atmosphere of unreality.” The reliance on thought creates an irreconcilable dualism between thought and action in which the unity of experience is lost. Thus dissolving the integrity of our selves, and destroying any connection with reality. In order to formulate a more adequate cogito, Macmurray proposes the substitution of “I do” for “I think”. Ultimately leading to a belief in God as an agent to whom all persons stand in relation.
Skepticism
Many philosophical skeptics and particularly radical skeptics would say that indubitable knowledge does not exist, is impossible, or has not been found yet, and would apply this criticism to the assertion that the “cogito” is beyond doubt.
Luc Paquin
Contemporary Witchcraft Contrasted With Satanism
Satanism is a broad term referring to diverse beliefs that share a symbolic association with, or admiration for, Satan, who is seen as a liberating figure. While it is heir to the same historical period and pre-Enlightenment beliefs that gave rise to modern witchcraft, it is generally seen as completely separate from modern witchcraft and Wicca, and has little or no connection to them.
Modern witchcraft considers Satanism to be the “dark side of Christianity” rather than a branch of Wicca: – the character of Satan referenced in Satanism exists only in the theology of the three Abrahamic religions, and Satanism arose as, and occupies the role of, a rebellious counterpart to Christianity, in which all is permitted and the self is central. (Christianity can be characterized as having the diametrically opposite views to these.) Such beliefs become more visibly expressed in Europe after the Enlightenment, when works such as Milton’s Paradise Lost were described anew by romantics who suggested that they presented the biblical Satan as an allegory representing crisis of faith, individualism, free will, wisdom and enlightenment; a few works from that time also begin to directly present Satan in a less negative light, such as Letters from the Earth. The two major trends are theistic Satanism and atheistic Satanism; the former venerates Satan as a supernatural patriarchal deity, while the latter views Satan as merely a symbolic embodiment of certain human traits.
Organized groups began to emerge in the mid 20th century, including the Ophite Cultus Satanas (1948) and The Church of Satan (1966). It was estimated that there were up to 100,000 Satanists worldwide by 2006, twice the number estimated in 1990. Satanistic beliefs have been largely permitted as a valid expression of religious belief in the West. For example, they were allowed in the British Royal Navy in 2004, and an appeal was considered in 2005 for religious status as a right of prisoners by the Supreme Court of the United States. Contemporary Satanism is mainly an American phenomenon, although it began to reach Eastern Europe in the 1990s around the time of the fall of the Soviet Union.
The Lost Bearded White Brother
Criticisms
There have been a number of criticisms of the argument. One concerns the nature of the step from “I am thinking” to “I exist.” The contention is that this is a syllogistic inference, for it appears to require the extra premise: “Whatever has the property of thinking, exists”, a premise Descartes did not justify. In fact, he conceded that there would indeed be an extra premise needed, but denied that the cogito is a syllogism (see below).
To argue that the cogito is not a syllogism, one may call it self-evident that “Whatever has the property of thinking, exists”. In plain English, it seems incoherent to actually doubt that one exists and is doubting. Strict skeptics maintain that only the property of ‘thinking’ is indubitably a property of the meditator (presumably, they imagine it possible that a thing thinks but does not exist). This countercriticism is similar to the ideas of Jaakko Hintikka, who offers a nonsyllogistic interpretation of cogito ergo sum. He claimed that one simply cannot doubt the proposition “I exist”. To be mistaken about the proposition would mean something impossible: I do not exist, but I am still wrong.
Perhaps a more relevant contention is whether the “I” to which Descartes refers is justified. In Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry, Bernard Williams provides a history and full evaluation of this issue. Apparently, the first scholar who raised the problem was Pierre Gassendi. He “points out that recognition that one has a set of thoughts does not imply that one is a particular thinker or another. Were we to move from the observation that there is thinking occurring to the attribution of this thinking to a particular agent, we would simply assume what we set out to prove, namely, that there exists a particular person endowed with the capacity for thought”. In other words, “the only claim that is indubitable here is the agent-independent claim that there is cognitive activity present”. The objection, as presented by Georg Lichtenberg, is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have said: “thinking is occurring.” That is, whatever the force of the cogito, Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the “I,” is more than the cogito can justify. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized the phrase in that it presupposes that there is an “I”, that there is such an activity as “thinking”, and that “I” know what “thinking” is. He suggested a more appropriate phrase would be “it thinks.” In other words, the “I” in “I think” could be similar to the “It” in “It is raining.” David Hume claims that the philosophers who argue for a self that can be found using reason are confusing “similarity” with “identity”. This means that the similarity of our thoughts and the continuity of them in this similarity do not mean that we can identify ourselves as a self but that our thoughts are similar.
Luc Paquin
Chapter 15
The going was slow for the first few hours. Soon the surface became more icy and Ludger was able to pick up his pace. By mid-afternoon, after having stopped to refuel, a sprinkle of snow started falling. In the distance, Ludger could see the saw-tooth peaks of the Howling Mountains. Later he decided to make camp in the shadow of an icy ridge. It would protest him from the wind that was gathering strength.
He erected the small one man, Gore-Tex® bivy tent, in the hollow between the ridge and the snowmobile. He stuffed it with his thick, down-filled sleeping bag. He brushed all the snow off his clothes and slid fully dressed in the bag. He dragged behind him some supplies for the night. He laid out his sword and his MAC 10 beside him. He unfolded the small sheet metal stove, letting its chimney exhaust in a vent of the tent, near him. He lit a can of gelled fuel and inserted it into the stove. Soon it was warm enough around his upper body, that he was able to remove his thick mittens and his face mask.
He pulled a canteen filled with water, from under his thick clothing. He filled a small pot with it, them placed it atop the stove. He opened the outer pouch of an MRE. After the water warmed up he placed the sealed, entrée pouch in the hot water. He made himself comfortable while his meal warmed up. When the water reached the boiling point he tore open the plastic pouch and poured his meal on a metal plate. With the hot water he brewed a cup of strong coffee with the packet supplied with the meal.
He rapidly finished the unappetizing meal, while thinking about what laid ahead of him. The temperature outside had dropped to minus 70F. Tomorrow he would reach the level of the western mountains. He would have to negotiate hazardous terrain. He settled himself for the night, as he finished his coffee.
He woke up in the middle of the night. The temperature in the tent was freezing. The little stove had gone out from lack of fuel. With numb fingers he replaced the depleted can with a fresh, lit one. Outside the wind was howling fiercely. He sneaked a peak, out. A blizzard was raging.
By morning his tent and snowmobile were buried under two feet of fresh windblown snow. Ludger could not believe that it could be so cold and still snow. It took a couple of hours of back breaking work before Ludger could get under way again. By midday his pace had slowed to a crawl. He often had to stop his machine and go probe the snow ahead of him for hidden fissures, with his sword. He took the precaution of attaching the end of a long rope to the snowmobile, the other end being looped around his waist. It once prevented a harsh fall, when a narrow snow bridge broke down in front of him.
Later that afternoon, as he was negotiating another bridge, the tightly packed snow collapsed, behind him, under the weight of the sleigh. His snowmobile stood precariously perched at the edge of a deep fissure. He was being pulled backward by the weight of the laden sleigh. Only a quick spurt of power, making the studded track bite the packed snow fiercely, saved him from certain death. After he had reached more stable grounds, he drove at high speed for a few hours, putting as much distance between him and the mountains.
By mid-morning the next day, after another high speed, breathtaking drive, the scenery started to change radically. On his right, stood the ragged peaks of the Howling Mountains. On his left, were the more rounded mountains where the river was dammed. Between them was a narrow canyon, the Valley of Perils. He stopped for lunch at its entrance. The area was more protected from the elements and the weather was slightly better, although still arctic in character.
That night, after a careful trek up the valley, he camped close to the base of the vertical wall he would have to climb in the morning.
Dawn revealed what he had not been able to ascertain last night, in the twilight. The climb would be technically straightforward, but the frigid weather, the heavy explosives and the fact that he was alone would slow him drastically.
Ludger walked to the cliff’s face and was surprised to find the rocky surface well above freezing temperature. He wondered how this was possible. He concentrated on the warm feeling. Soon the aura of white magic showed up inside the rock. It was much brighter in the direction of the lake formed by the dammed river, higher up on the cliff.
He deducted, that the trapped magic in the water was heating the solid rock. This would make his climb much easier. He put the explosives and the detonators in a sturdy pack with some supplies and equipment. He strapped his sword, the MAC 10 and the handrifle, to it. He brought the pack and another one full of climbing gear to the base of the cliff.
He removed his thick arctic clothing and packed it in the sleigh. He pulled a thick, white tarpaulin over the sleigh and the snowmobile. He spent half an hour covering it with snow. After everything was well camouflaged he walked back to the clear area where he had left the bags. He slowly stretched until he was warmed up and limber. He stepped in a full harness, then donned a pair of friction boots. He clipped a karabiner attached to a long rope to his packs. He distributed his climbing gear all over his body. After chalking up his hand he started up the vertical wall. He would use the “Z” system of self-belay. About forty feet up he anchored his rope solidly. He hauled up the heavy bags and secured them to a piton he had hammered in a narrow crack. He rappelled down a separate rope and retrieved his runners on the way back up the hill.
For the rest of the day he would climb a short span, putting runners at short intervals. He would then secure the bags’ rope and himself. He would rappel down a third rope to the bags. After unhooking them from their previous belay, he would climb back up the rope retrieving the runners on the way. Once back up to his higher belay point he would pull up the bags to himself. This time consuming process, would be repeated endlessly.
By nightfall he had reached a fissure protected by a short overhang. He had progressed about two thirds of the way up. He decided to bivouac in the fissure. After hammering many pitons in its walls, he hung up his equipment. From his bags he pulled out a nylon hammock. He installed it between the walls of the fissure. He hung his small stove beside it. After securing himself on a second rope, he slid into the hammock. He was well protected from the outside elements in the fissure and the heat from the rock would keep him warm. All in all his makeshift camp, hanging a thousand feet over the ground, would do.
The long climb had drained all of his energy. He felt very weary. He ate two MREs for dinner, to try to recharge his energy. With his stomach full, hanging gently in the soft breeze, he slowly drifted to sleep. He had a restless night. At first his stomach was protesting at its diet of bland packaged food. Then the overwhelming presence of magic in the surrounding rocks filled his sleep with disturbing dreams.
Images of cave ghouls attacking him filled his mind. He relentlessly parried their thrust, but they kept coming back. Later he was running in slow motion, as it is common in dreams, pursued by a tall black clad man carrying an absurdly long sword. An enormous black bat was perched on the man’s shoulder. Everytime Ludger was able to outdistance the man, he would appear in front of him. Making Ludger’s efforts futile.
*
The next morning, when Ludger started on his climb, it was as if he had never stopped climbing the night before. His body was stiff and tired. It took him at least an hour to limber up. It was past noon when he reached the summit. After he stretched his body on the firm ground, he hid the bulk of his climbing equipment under some rocks. He would survey the area prior to the attack. He retrieved his weapons from the pack of explosives, then slipped the pack on his back. After a short trek on a narrow path, he reached a good vantage point where he could study the surrounding area, without himself be seen. A pair of dark elves were walking away from him in a narrow pass. They had not noticed him. They disappeared in the direction of the dam.
A majestic vista stretched in front of him. Across the canyon, to the southwest, stood the bleak, rugged features of the Howling Mountains. To the southeast were the blackened plains of the Desert of Death. To the north, filling a hidden valley with its waters, was the Magic Lake. Its surface, glowing of white magic, was almost too painful for Ludger eyes to look at. An impressive structure of cut stones and heavy timber, blocked the near end of the valley. Its long, thick, curved wall contained the waters of the lake. The surface of the lake hovered dangerously close to the top edge of the wall. By concentrating on this area, Ludger could see the dark weaving of a black magic spell, preventing the white magic to overflow the dam. Ludger wondered how such a massive spell could be maintained at all time.
He studied the dam with a pair of small, powerful binoculars. At its top edge, centrally located on its span, stood a large intricately carved, rectangular structure. Ludger could barely see a faint seam in the dam’s surface, running up to it. This was the lock holding together both halves of the dam’s gigantic gate. On both side of the valley, in small wooden barracks by the top of the dam, stood guard a lone dark elf soldier.
To the east, on the horizon, Ludger could see Arexis’ troops slowly approaching. The attack was not scheduled until the morning after tomorrow’s. Ludger could not take a chance of planting the explosives until the next evening, for fear of discovery. He would have to remain hidden until then. In the late afternoon’s suns, Magdar’s troops started to arrive from the general direction of the Gates of Doom. The ragged looking, undisciplined troops set camp at the base of the dam. They probably would move out, tomorrow, to meat Arexis’ forces. Ludger had an idea. If he could plant his mines tonight, the explosion and subsequent flow of water would eliminate a good portion of the enemies, before they would have time to move out. If Arexis’ soldiers advanced all night, they would be able to start the attack a day early.
Ludger pulled out a small radio transmitter from his pack. After countless tries he managed to raise Chargoff. The General was enthusiastic about the changes of plans. He looked forward to an earlier start, against reduced forces. Ludger would blow up the lock, tomorrow morning at 05:00, trying to catch the enemy still in its camp. The attack would follow as soon as the troops could arrive to the Gates of Doom.
Ludger laid out the contents of his pack in front of him. He took the two bags of explosives and separated the sticks into seven charges. He unwrapped them and kneaded the sticks into an uniform mass. He chose seven electrical detonators. He buried each one of them, in one of the charges. Using the spool of wire he lengthened the leads to usable length. After checking for continuity with a small tester, he coiled the wires neatly and returned the seven charges of explosives to the bag. He made sure that his timer was operational and that the small lead-acid battery was fully charged. He set the tripping time for 05:00.
At 18:00 the guard was changed on both sides of the dam. The replacements had come from the pass where Ludger had spied the dark elves this afternoon. By the barracks on the near side the two new arrival exchanged pleasantries with the guard for a few minutes. Ludger learned, using his powerful directional sound amplifier, that the next change of the guard would be at midnight. One of the guards walked slowly across the dam to the far side. He changed places with the guard in the second barracks. This one returned to this side and left with the other guard.
Ludger tried to catch some sleep, for a few hours. At the appointed time the guard was changed. Ludger stayed still for another hour. The night was helpfully cloudy. He gathered his equipment and walked silently to a convenient pile of rubble, near the barracks. The guard was standing up, his back to Ludger. He was gazing at the camp bellow. When the moon made a brief appearance through the clouds, Ludger noticed through his binoculars that the guard’s counterpart on the far side was sound asleep in his barracks.
Ludger pulled out a short, double edged, combat knife from his boot. Leaving his pack behind, he stealthily sneaked behind the guard. He covered the elf’s mouth with his open hand and pulled him unto his upturned blade. The sharp metal found its way between two ribs, piercing the heart, while the guard collapsed in Ludger’s arms. He quickly propped the elf up on a chair, making it look like he was sound asleep. Ludger checked and his actions had been unnoticed by the guard on the other side.
He retrieved his pack and made his way to the middle of the dam. The wide stone walkway made him highly visible to anybody who cared watching. Luckily his audience was otherwise indisposed, one was sound asleep and the other one would never wake up again. He hid himself in the shadow of the lock. The large stone structure was inlaid in the top of the dam. An intricate network of spells covered its perimeter. By concentrating Ludger could see spaces, between the lines of power, where he could place his mines. Since the moon was cooperating, by remaining hidden, he decided to proceed as fast as possible.
Ludger pulled a pair of night-vision goggles from his pack and put them on. When he turned them on, the night lit up to an eerie green glow. He placed a small collapsible grappling hook, attached to a rope, at the junction between the wall and the lock. He tested its holding powers and, when satisfied, swung himself into the void. With his grey clothes and the cooperation of the moon, he would remain hidden from any observers. After securing himself on the dangling rope, Ludger started to place his explosive charges. He would first pinpoint a weakness in the black magic field in a strategic area, then carefully mould the pliable putty to the lock. The proximity of the powerful protective spells made his hair stand on end, due to the flow of stray energy. He was very careful not to test the spell’s effectiveness.
After over an hour of painstaking work the seven mines were in place. Ludger assembled all the electrical leads together and checked, for a second time, their continuity. He wired them, in parallel, to the small timer. After checking the tripping time, he taped the battery to the timer. He placed the timer on an unprotected area of the lock and secured it in place. He double checked every connection. When he was satisfied of his work, he threw the arming switch on the timer. He swung himself off the lock. When he stopped swaying on the rope, he pulled himself, hand over hand, back up to the walkway. He swung himself over the low wall and rolled into the shadow of the lock. The guard had not stirred. After retrieving his rope he quietly returned to his hiding place overlooking the dam. He would stand guard and make sure that his work would not be discovered.
Ludger installed himself comfortably. He had about two hours to wait before the explosion. He opened the action of his small handrifle and inserted a cartridge in it. He laid down the specialized single shot handgun on his rolled up nylon bag. Time passed slowly. No amount of looking at his wristwatch would make it flow faster. Around 04:30 the camp, at the base of the dam, started to stir with activity. Ludger was afraid that he might be too late. Suddenly he heard a sharp whistle coming from the barracks on the other side of the dam. The guard, there, was trying to attract the attention of his counterpart. When no response came back the dark elf paced nervously in front of his barracks. Ludger closed the action of his gun, chambering the round. He adjusted the focus of his telescopic sight. If need be, he was confident of making the difficult shot, that was at the extreme limit of the effective range of the handrifle’s calibre.
As the clock grew nearer to the hour, the guard decided to investigate the lack of response of his partner. He stepped on the walkway and made his way to the middle of the dam. Ludger was following him through his scope. The guard noticed something abnormal with the lock. He leaned over it. As he was about to touch one of the protruding wires, Ludger lined up his scope’s cross hairs with the head of the elf and slowly squeezed the trigger. The report was deafening in the still morning air. A red mist exploded from the dark elf’s temple as he collapsed silently forward. The guard gracefully fell down the dizzying height of the dam, bouncing off its rough surface two or three times.
At the same moment that some soldiers, from the camp, arrived at the side of the broken body to investigate, a large ball of orange flames erupted from the lock of the dam. A gargantuan roar accompanied by a heat wave followed, as the ground shook. In his hiding place Ludger was showered by debris and dust. At first he was disappointed to see that the dam was holding, despite a large breach at its top. Then, the irresistible pressure of the water responding to the law of gravity, bulged the wall at its centre. Slowly, at first, water started to trickle out of the breach. As it gathered momentum the masonry exploded outward, liberating a cataract of water and debris.
Thousands upon thousands of enemy soldiers were mercilessly swept to their death by the raging flow of water. A wall of the, magic carrying, liquid was rushing through the old bed of the river.
Ludger was very proud of his work. He watched the destruction wrought by his mines like a proud father watches his child prodigy perform for a large audience. Through his binoculars Ludger noticed that in a few hours his friends would arrive at the Gates of Doom. He wanted to be there to join them. He quickly returned to the edge of the cliff, where he had left his climbing equipment. He tied on to a long doubled rope, that was passed through a piton. He rappelled down the rope to a secure belay and retrieved the rope. It took Ludger three hours to reach the bottom of the hill.
He walked to the hidden snowmobile and pulled the cover off it. He stowed it and his climbing equipment in the sleigh. After refuelling he was quickly on his way out of the valley. Parts of the plains were flooded. Ludger was forced to follow the first slopes of the Howling Mountains. After a few hours he noticed the first signs of combat. Dwarves were fighting trolls and goblins in a narrow pass. Ludger’s path was blocked by the skirmish. He pulled out his long sword and, while driving with one hand, rushed the enemy. He inflicted massive wounds as he went through the pass. He continued on his way amidst the cheers of the dwarves.
Ludger crested one last hill and discovered the site of the main battle. There was no snow in the valley in front of him. He parked the snowmobile in a hollow and gathered his weapons. He quickly covered the vehicle with the tarpaulin. He would continue on foot. In a large flat expanse of ground leading to the mountain’s side, a fierce battle was raging. The King’s forces were battling a mob of assailant in front of a gigantic metal gate set in the face of the mountain. Ludger recognized the silhouette of Arexis leading the troops. He drew his sword and marched in the direction of the King, joining the fight only if he had to.
Passing through a group of boulders he was confronted by a mob of trolls. He pointed his submachine gun in their direction and emptied the magazine. The suppressive fire laid carnage in the close quarters of the boulders. Letting the gun drop to the ground, Ludger grabbed his sword and finished the trolls that had not been hit by the devastating spray of lead. He retrieved his MAC 10 from the ground and reloaded it. He exited the area of the boulders carefully. He was surprised to see Balnor, Dregnar and Bacchus fighting at Arexis’ side. They were supposed to be in Elvanor.
When Ludger reached the King, this one had a grim look on his face. He yelled at Ludger over the din of the battle.
“You have done well in restoring the river, but it might be for naught. Magdar has kidnapped Nathalia. She had convinced Balnor, against his best judgment, to follow the elves into battle. Your vehicle, who was driven by Lynor, was ambushed and Nathalia was captured.” He pointed to the large gates. “She is now behind the Gates of Doom.”
Ludger was flabbergasted. He could not envision life in this world, without her. He was determined to save her, but his resolve floundered when he noticed the large portal slowly closing. He rushed to Andrack’s side. The wizard was devastating the enemy with powerful spells. Ludger pointed to the gates and said.
“Can you do anything? Nathalia is in there.”
“I will do my best.”
The large wizard pointed his arms to the sky and chanted an incantation. His newly restored power flowed through his hands. A large shimmering ball of white energy formed over his head. His hair and beard stood like a halo around his face. As the gates were nearly closed, Andrack clapped his hands. The ball of energy leapt to the target. The white bolts of energy enveloped the massive doors, encircling them in a lacework of white lightnings. The doors stopped closing, hesitantly, as if caught by an inner struggle.
Suddenly Andrack’s spell was broken by an internal flow of energy. A deafening roar was followed by a shower of sparks. The Gates of Doom slammed shut with a resounding thud. Its purple protective spell was glowing angrily.
Andrack, his arms limply hanging at his sides, said in a muted voice.
“Now his fortress is impregnable. I put all the energy available to me in this spell and he broke it. I do not know how he can concentrate so much energy. It is as if I was fighting hundreds of wizards using their powers, together.”
Not accepting the defeat, Ludger looked around for Dregnar. He found the troll at Balnor’s side. Ludger ran toward him. Without a glance at the scribe he said to the troll.
“You were once prisoner behind the Gates, is there another way in?”
“Well…, there is the abandoned mine shaft by which I escaped. It is hidden nearby in one of the passes.”
“Show it to me right now. I’m going in after Nathalia.”
“Master, I will accompany you with Bacchus. Without our guidance you will get lost in the many corridors.”
Ludger found Arexis. He told him about his plan. Without waiting for a reply, he left for the pass followed by the troll and his dog.
They skirted the fighting in front of the gates. Dregnar led them to the entrance of the narrow snowy pass. All was still and no traces were found on the fresh snow. They decided to go on. It was very quiet in the pass. The tall walls blocked the sounds of the combat. Shortly after they had entered, Dregnar stopped by a large boulder. He started to rock the large stone gently. As it gained momentum, it rolled aside revealing a dark hole in the ground.
Ludger turned on a small electric torch. He lit the inside of the passage. It sloped gently deeper in the mountain. Dregnar pushed him aside. He went in, followed by Bacchus. Ludger, having no choice, started after them. The troll led him through a complicated series of natural passages.
They finally reached a manmade tunnel. Footsteps and voices echoed from one end. Dregnar put a long digit to his lips and pulled Ludger by his sleeve to the other end. They discreetly travelled, making sure that they were not discovered. They hid in a small alcove. Dregnar said in a whisper.
“We are about to reach the prison area. I doubt that there will be any guards. There was none before. On the other side are Magdar’s quarters.”
They tiptoed through a large open area. When they heard steps coming from a narrow corridor, they rapidly scrambled behind an unlocked door. An eerie glow lit the room. Oblong, green, glowing shapes were lined up beside each other, as far as the eyes could see. Purple, neon like, tubes exited the nebulous forms and collected in a tall cylindrical, purple cloud.
When the footsteps disappeared down the corridor, Ludger turned on his penlight. An incredible sight was revealed. Glass cocoons were lined up on the floor of a cavernous room.They were linked by thin glass tubes to a tall glowing cylinder. The floor under the cocoons was made of black obsidian. Each cocoon was host to a human body. In the middle of the green glow, dressed in long silk robes, laid the emaciated shape of one of the lost wizards. Ludger guessed that he had found the secret of Magdar’s powers. This was how he was able to maintain his spell on the Magic Dam over a long period of time, and was able to defeat Andrack’s spell on the door. His black magic was amplified, using the wizards as conduits, and stored in the large vertical tube. It worked similarly to the way that Andrack had used him on the river.
Ludger pulled his sword. Its handle was throbbing heavily in his strong grip. Ludger scored the glass of the first cocoon with his sword tip. He rapped at the score with the sword’s handle. The glass enclosure neatly split in half. The hollow cheeked wizard slowly stirred. Ludger said.
“Do you know how to open the gates?”
The man replied in a thin, dry voice.
“Yes, there is a control in a rotunda by the doors.” He looked around, dazed. “Will you liberate my friends? There are more of us in the next room. Magdar rotates us on a weekly basis, so not to drain us entirely.”
Ludger instructed Dregnar to see to the other wizards, while he cut the remaining cocoons open. When the last of the sorcerers was released, Dregnar escorted them to the gates. Ludger scored the large container of black magic. It burst open from inner pressure. Ludger was bathed in a purple glow. His chainmail grew rigid and he was helpless to move. The red aura of his mail glowed angrily while the black magic flowed aimlessly back into the obsidian floor. When the last remnants of black magic disappeared in the floor, Ludger slowly regained his freedom. His chainmail had protected him from the sudden onslaught of power. He quietly exited the room, sword in hand. He walked toward Magdar’s quarters.
As he passed in front of an elegantly carved wooden door, Ludger heard the sounds of a violent argument. He could swear that one of the voices was Nathalia’s. Sounds of a struggle followed. When he heard the crash of glass on the door, he kicked it with the sole of his boot. The lock broke and the door crashed open into the wall.
Nathalia was wrestling with a tall, black haired man. He was doing his best to prevent his eyes from being gouged out. He slapped the young woman with his forearm. She flew against the wall. The tall man turned toward Ludger. He pulled a long black sword from the scabbard hanging at his side. Without a pause he attacked. When their swords touched, they were showered by sparks. A gruelling battle followed under the incredulous stare of Nathalia. Both men thrust and parried until they slowed down, exhausted. They were of even strength and their swords were a match for each others. Ludger had a few close calls but his chainmail saved his day. He was gaining the upper hand when he tripped over a broken vase. He rolled quickly to his back, just in time to deflect Magdar’s deadly sword.
Magdar, hitting Ludger’s hands with the flat of his blade, disarmed him neatly. The wizard put a foot on Ludger’s chest. Holding his blade underhand, he said.
“You do not belong here and I will make sure that you will not meddle with my affairs.”
As the man was about to thrust his sword into Ludger’s forehead, Bacchus -who had just come in the room- jumped at his arm. Ludger managed to deflect the blade. While Bacchus was being brushed away by the man, Ludger pulled his Glock from the small of his back. He emptied the entire thirteen rounds into Magdar’s body. The dark wizard collapsed into a bloody heap. Just then Arexis walked in the room, sword in hand.
Bacchus came to him and licked his face. Ludger could see Nathalia struggling back to her feet looking at him with love and concern in her eyes. Bacchus communicated silently to him.
“I told you we would have fun in this world. There is nothing like a good war to stir up the blood.” She looked toward Nathalia and continued. “And remember the fringe benefits I had told you about…. Now its time for me to find a fire, I need a rest.”
Ludger let his head fall back onto the cold, stone floor. He closed his eyes and sighed.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
From 1990: One Way Ticket To Talenthar
The Sass
Predecessors
Although the idea expressed in cogito ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. Plato spoke about the “knowledge of knowledge” (Greek: nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length:
- But if life itself is good and pleasant (…) and if one who sees is conscious that he sees, one who hears that he hears, one who walks that he walks and similarly for all the other human activities there is a faculty that is conscious of their exercise, so that whenever we perceive, we are conscious that we perceive, and whenever we think, we are conscious that we think, and to be conscious that we are perceiving or thinking is to be conscious that we exist… (Nicomachean Ethics, 1170a25 ff.)
Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei writes Si […] fallor, sum (“If I am mistaken, I am”) (book XI, 26), and also anticipates modern refutations of the concept. Furthermore, in the Enchiridion Augustine attempts to refute skepticism by stating, “[B]y not positively affirming that they are alive, the skeptics ward off the appearance of error in themselves, yet they do make errors simply by showing themselves alive; one cannot err who is not alive. That we live is therefore not only true, but it is altogether certain as well” (Chapter 7 section 20). Another predecessor was Avicenna’s “Floating Man” thought experiment on human self-awareness and self-consciousness.
The 8th Century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara wrote in a similar fashion, No one thinks, ‘I am not’, arguing that one’s existence cannot be doubted, as there must be someone there to doubt.
Luc Paquin
The Core Values Of LPAA
LPAA is structured around five core values that serve as guides to assessment, intervention, and research.
The Explicit Goal Is Enhancement of Life Participation
In the LPAA approach, the first focus of the client, clinician, and policy-maker is to assess the extent to which persons affected by aphasia are able to achieve life participation goals, and the extent to which the aphasia hinders the attainment of these desired outcomes. The second focus is to improve short-term and long-term participation in life.
All Those Affected by Aphasia Are Entitled to Service
LPAA supports all those affected directly by aphasia, including immediate family and close associates of the adult with aphasia. The LPAA approach holds that it is essential to build protected communities within society where persons with aphasia are able not only to participate but are valued as participants. Therefore, intervention may involve changing broader social systems to make them more accessible to those affected by aphasia.
The Measures of Success Include Documented Life-Enhancement Changes
The LPAA approach calls for the use of outcome measures that assess quality of life and the degree to which those affected by aphasia meet their life participation goals.
Without a cause to communicate, we believe, there is no practical need for communication. Therefore, treatment focuses on a reason to communicate as much as on communication repair. In so doing, treatment attends to each consumer’s feelings, relationships, and activities in life.
Both Personal and Environmental Factors Are Targets of Intervention
Disruption of daily life for individuals affected by aphasia (including those who do not have aphasia themselves) is evident on two levels: personal (internal) and environmental (external). Intervention consists of constantly assessing, weighing, and prioritizing which personal and environmental factors should be targets of intervention and how best to provide freer, easier, and more autonomous access to activities and social connections of choice. This does not mean that treatment comprises only life resumption processes, but rather that enhanced participation in life “governs” management from its inception. In this fundamental way, the LPAA approach differs from one in which life enhancement is targeted only after language repair has been addressed.
Emphasis Is on the Availability of Services as Needed at All Stages of Aphasia
LPAA begins with the onset of aphasia and continues until consumers and providers agree that targeted life enhancement changes have occurred. However, LPAA acknowledges that life consequences of aphasia change over time and should be addressed regardless of the length of time post-onset. Consumers are therefore permitted to discontinue intervention, and reenter treatment when they believe they need to continue work on a goal or to attain a new life goal.
Norma
Interpretation
The phrase cogito ergo sum is not used in Descartes’s Meditations on First Philosophy but the term “the cogito” is used to refer to an argument from it. In the Meditations, Descartes phrases the conclusion of the argument as “that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind.” (Meditation II)
At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt – his argument from the existence of a deceiving god – Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence, he finds that it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon), one’s belief in their own existence would be secure, for there is no way one could be deceived unless one existed in order to be deceived.
- But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Does it now follow that I, too, do not exist? No. If I convinced myself of something [or thought anything at all], then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who deliberately and constantly deceives me. In that case, I, too, undoubtedly exist, if he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I think that I am something. So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, I am, I exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind. (AT VII 25; CSM II 16-17)
There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he claims only the certainty of his own existence from the first-person point of view – he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he does not say that his existence is necessary; he says that if he thinks, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition “I am, I exist” is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) or on empirical induction but on the clarity and self-evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to restore his beliefs. As he puts it:
- Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakable. (AT VII 24; CSM II 16)
According to many Descartes specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion – the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self-evident propositions – to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes’s thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito – a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see – but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence. Baruch Spinoza in “Principia philosophiae cartesianae” at its Prolegomenon identified “cogito ergo sum” the “ego sum cogitans” (I am a thinking being) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation. It can also be considered that Cogito ergo sum is needed before any living being can go further in life”
Luc Paquin
Contemporary Witchcraft
Modern practices identified by their practitioners as “witchcraft” have grown dramatically since the early 20th century. Generally portrayed as revivals of pre-Christian European ritual and spirituality, they are understood to involve varying degrees of magic, shamanism, folk medicine, spiritual healing, calling on elementals and spirits, veneration of ancient deities and archetypes, and attunement with the forces of nature.
The first Neopagan groups to publicly appear, during the 1950s and 60s, were Gerald Gardner’s Bricket Wood coven and Roy Bowers’ Clan of Tubal Cain. They operated as initiatory secret societies. Other individual practitioners and writers such as Paul Huson also claimed inheritance to surviving traditions of witchcraft.
Wicca
During the 20th century, interest in witchcraft in English-speaking and European countries began to increase, inspired particularly by Margaret Murray’s theory of a pan-European witch-cult originally published in 1921, since discredited by further careful historical research. Interest was intensified, however, by Gerald Gardner’s claim in 1954 in Witchcraft Today that a form of witchcraft still existed in England. The truth of Gardner’s claim is now disputed too, with different historians offering evidence for or against the religion’s existence prior to Gardner.
The Wicca that Gardner initially taught was a witchcraft religion having a lot in common with Margaret Murray’s hypothetically posited cult of the 1920s. Indeed, Murray wrote an introduction to Gardner’s Witchcraft Today, in effect putting her stamp of approval on it. Wicca is now practised as a religion of an initiatory secret society nature with positive ethical principles, organised into autonomous covens and led by a High Priesthood. There is also a large “Eclectic Wiccan” movement of individuals and groups who share key Wiccan beliefs but have no initiatory connection or affiliation with traditional Wicca. Wiccan writings and ritual show borrowings from a number of sources including 19th and 20th-century ceremonial magic, the medieval grimoire known as the Key of Solomon, Aleister Crowley’s Ordo Templi Orientis and pre-Christian religions. Both men and women are equally termed “witches.” They practice a form of duotheistic universalism.
Since Gardner’s death in 1964, the Wicca that he claimed he was initiated into has attracted many initiates, becoming the largest of the various witchcraft traditions in the Western world, and has influenced other Neopagan and occult movements.
Stregheria
Stregheria is an Italian witchcraft religion popularised in the 1980s by Raven Grimassi, who claims that it evolved within the ancient Etruscan religion of Italian peasants who worked under the Catholic upper classes.
Modern Stregheria closely resembles Charles Leland’s controversial late-19th-century account of a surviving Italian religion of witchcraft, worshipping the Goddess Diana, her brother Dianus/Lucifer, and their daughter Aradia. Leland’s witches do not see Lucifer as the evil Satan that Christians see, but a benevolent god of the Sun and Moon.
The ritual format of contemporary Stregheria is roughly similar to that of other Neopagan witchcraft religions such as Wicca. The pentagram is the most common symbol of religious identity. Most followers celebrate a series of eight festivals equivalent to the Wiccan Wheel of the Year, though others follow the ancient Roman festivals. An emphasis is placed on ancestor worship.
Feri Tradition
The Feri Tradition is a modern traditional witchcraft practice founded by Victor Henry Anderson and his wife Cora. It is an ecstatic tradition which places strong emphasis on sensual experience and awareness, including sexual mysticism, which is not limited to heterosexual expression.
Most practitioners worship three main deities; the Star Goddess, and two divine twins, one of whom is the blue God. They believe that there are three parts to the human soul, a belief taken from the Hawaiian religion of Huna as described by Max Freedom Long.
The Lost Bearded White Brother